Hominin Britain
A Short Appraisal of the Earliest Hominins in the British Isles
by
Dr Rob Walsh
(LRU)
Preface
Originally the British Isles were linked to Europe as one landmass. Over geological time this landmass eroded, broke up as channels and seas formed, isolating the British Isles (BI). Occasionally, Ice ages would cause sea levels to drop. This re-established the BI links with continental Europe, allowing fauna to enter the BI, and flourish in the parts of the land free of thick ice sheets.
From at least 700 kya, people entered the BI, from Europe and settled in what are now East Anglain, Norfolk and Suffolk coastal areas. These regions were rich in several types of fish, as well as large and smaller faunal animals and edible fruits. In short, a rich food source for those who could exploit it.
The occasion interglacial phases, meant the re-formation periodically of the English Channel and North Sea. The channel originally formed some 450,000 years ago by catastrophic flooding due to land erosion, between what is now England and France.
The Ice ages allowed access to the BI, and after the English channels levels dropped the Celtic Shelf landbridge aided migrating hominins, such as Homo heidelbergensis, Neanderthals and Homo sapiens across in to the BI.
Successive glacial phases in Northern Europe saw populations in the BI dwindle from substantial numbers 500,000 and 400,000 years ago to only a few during the subsequent Palaeolithic age, until 120,000 years ago, no trace of any hominins are recorded in the BI. It seems there were not the viable numbers of humans to breed and survive the onslaught of the Ice ages, whilst in mainland Europe, Homo antecessor, Homo heidelbergensis, Neanderthals and Homo sapiens all prospered in greater numbers.
These warmer places in Europe, provided niches for human populations to survive and flourish whilst northern Europe suffered from ice advances. The BI was devoid of any humans for 100,00 years, until Homo sapiens arrived 12,000 BC.
Early Hominins - Homo antecessor
Pakefield
Chronologically speaking the earliest evidence for hominin activity in the BI comes from the coastal site of Pakefield.
The Pakefield site is situated near Lowestoft in Suffolk, under eroding cliffs of glacial deposits. Historicaly a small fishing community, it now forms one of the southern suburbs of Lowestoft.
The area's main attraction is its undeveloped stony beach and scenic cliffs, popular with walkers and artists. Though now a coastal area, Pakefield was formerly inland, having lost land due to coastal erosion.
Artefacts recovered from four separate places within the channel fill deposits of a stream bed which infilled during an early Pleistocene inter-glacial phase. The exact location of the flint knapping is unknown but the location of the artefacts in this channel bed does indicate an age of at least 700,000 years ago.
Excavations have exposed coastal sections of CF-bF (and associated deposits) between Pakefield and Kessingland resulting in the discovery of 32 worked flints (length >20mm), including a simple flaked core, a crudely retouched flake and a barrage of waste flakes.
These artifacts come from clear stratigraphic contexts and are associated with a wealth of evidence that allows a rare opportunity to reconstruct the environment inhabited by the hominins who made the tools. This is hypothesized as Homo antecessor, the same species as found at TD6, Atapuerca in Spain (circa 780 kya), and at Ceprano in Italy (circa 800 kya).
The artifacts, all in very good condition, are made of quality black flint. Unworked surfaces, where present, are water-worn, suggesting that the raw material was collected from the near river channel. The assemblage lacks formal tools and is thus consistent with a Mode 1 Technology (i.e. flakes, pebble tools and choppers made with hard hammers).
Fossils from sediments that contain the artifacts indicate that the local climate
was different from that of the present day in terms of temperature and seasonality of rain. Plant (Trapa natans, Salvinia natans and Corema album) and beetle (Cybister lateralimarginalis, Oxytelus opacus and Valgus hemipterus) remains include several thermophilous species no longer alive in Britain, and the presence of Hippopotamus, insects and plants implies much warmer summers and milder winters.
The beetles examined suggest that the mean temperature of the warmest month (July)
was between 18°C and 23°C and the mean temperature of the coldest months
(January/February) was between –6°C and 4°C.
The combination of warmer summer and winter temperatures together with a strongly seasonal rain, is indicative of a warm, seasonally dry Mediterranean climate.
Norton Subcourse
Norton Subcourse, Norfolk is located in East Anglia on the edge of the low- relief till plateau and lies adjacent to the low-lying areas of the Broads, some 15km inland from the coast, near the Bytham river system.
Norton Subcross has deep levels of clay, silts and peat. Species of Pike and Carp, Hippo, Elephant, Deer and Horse have all been excavated from this area by members of the AHOB team.
Hyenas coprolites, are one of the more bizarre finds, along with other palaeontological evidence, including molluscs, mammals and ostracods,
suggest that this is a previously unrecognised temperate episode in the British early Middle Pleistocene.
Happisburg
The sea has eroded the coastline to expose stratified sediments at Happisburg i, on the Norfolk coast. Local archaeologist Mike Chambers found one of two black flint hand axes, while walking the exposed beach
Since excavations started at Happisburg I, fauna such as fish, bird and amphibians (frog calles Pliobatrachus) have been excavated.
A foot bone of a bison with cutmarks on it also forms part of the assemblage, although this was not excavated recently, but was located in a draw at the Natural History museum, where it has sat since 1897 when the Natural History museum purchased a collection of mammal bones to study.
The water vowel, Arvicola suggests an age for Happisburg I of 500,000 to 680,000 years (Cromerian complex). These deposits were overlain by the Anglian ice sheets from Scandanavia some 450,000 years ago
Happisburg I overlies organic Cromer forest bed formation sediments.
Happisburg II and Happisburg III
AHOB geologist, Jim Rose believes at deeper deposits (as erosion further reduces the cliff face) sediment dates back to 500,000 years.
He believes a British Ice Sheet (with rocks only found in Scotland), some 650,000 years ago covered deposits from Happisburg II and III. They must thereby be older, as much as 800,000 years and maybe as old as Homo antecessor at the Gran Dolina, Spain (Matayama magnetic reversal stage). No such palaeomagnetic dating done as yet, so its thought this part of Happisburg probably relates to part of the normal magnetic polarity stage known as the Bruhns.
More recently footprints have been revealed by tidal withdrawals at Happisburg III. These were investigated and recorded, during the brief time they were exposed. They were dated to 850,000 – 900,000 years old.
Middle hominins - Homo heidelbergensis
Ice advances in Britain (500-350 kya) ment that the BI could be an inhospitable place to settle. However warmer inter glacial periods such as the Cromerian, created microenvironments with sub-tropical climates. This was the case at Boxgrove.
Boxgrove
Boxgrove is a Middle Pleistocene site in West Sussex, England. Since the early 1980's a number of localities within the gravel pits at Boxgrove have provided detailed insights into the life and palaeoecology of early hominins, dating to the Cromerian interglacial period.
At one locality, designated Q1/B, a series of fresh water deposits preserved the remains of butchered animal bones alongside large quantities of flint tools and waste flakes. This site appears to have been an area regularly exploited by hominins. A wide range of herbivores including rhinoceros, horse and red deer were attracted to the water hole, making it an excellent location for intercepting game. Many of the animal bones exhibit cut marks from the flint tools used to butcher the carcasses.
The chalk cliff at Boxgrove provided a local and readily available source of high quality flint, which was extensively exploited by hominids at the site. Boxgrove yields numerous flint tools and the waste flakes from their manufacture. Within the fine-grained sediments these waste flakes remain in-situ, preserving the arrangement of flakes left by knappers 480,000 years ago.
While simple flake tools such as endscrapers were made at the site, by far the most common tool-form was the biface. The biface is the defining tool of the Acheulean industry. Bifaces are typically 80-150mm long, flaked on both faces and knapped to both maximise cutting edges and ergonomic qualities, while minimising overall thickness. At Boxgrove this is achieved by extensive thinning of the tools with the removal of long, fine flakes using a soft-hammer made of bone or antler. The Boxgrove bifaces are generally oval in shape and are characterised by the removal of special sharpening flakes called 'tranchets' from their tip. Access to abundant fine-grained flint, the use of soft hammers and careful, competent workmanship by the Boxgrove hominids have combined to make Boxgrove bifaces some of the finest examples in the world. The Boxgrove bifaces appear to have been primarily used in the butchery of large mammals
The calcium carbonate rich deposits at Boxgrove preserve a wide range of faunal remains; the bones and teeth of animals, which occupied the same lagoonal and grassland environments as the Boxgrove hominids. These bones allow us to reconstruct the palaeoecology of the site, to date it, and, where cutmarks are preserved on bone, to study the hunting and butchery behaviour of the Boxgrove hominids.
The list ranges from carnivores, such as the lion (Panthera sp.), spotted hyaena (Crocuta crocuta), wolf (Canis lupus mosbachensis), extinct cave bear (Ursus deningeri), to large herbivores, such as elephant, horse (Equus ferus), extinct rhinoceros (Stephanorhinus hundsheimensis), two species of giant deer (Megaloceros dawkinsi & Megaloceros cf. verticornis); small mammals, such as the mountain hare (Lepus timidus), extinct voles and shrews (Pliomys episcopalis & Sorex savini), to amphibians, such as the common frog (Rana temporaria) and
fish such as flounder (Platichthys flesus) and blue fine tuna (Tunnus Thynnus). The fossilised remains of birds have also been excavated at the Boxgrove site. These include both large birds, such as the great auk (Pinguinus impennis), goose (Anser sp.) and tawny owl (Strix aluco), as well as smaller birds, like the robin (Erithacus rubella), starling (Sturnus vulgaris) and partridge (Perdix perdix).
Many bones exhibit cutmarks from flint tools. These tend to be concentrated around major muscle attachments indicating the expert removal of limbs and other carcass elements. Cutmarks around the ear and gums of some individuals suggest that the tongue was removed as a prized source of protein. Marrow was also routinely extracted by the hominids using flint hammers and anvils to crack open the limb bones of large mammals so as to extract the protein and fat rich meat. Offal and lights would have been eaten alongside meat as important sources of nutrition.
In 1993 a human tibia was found at Boxgrove, from a sediment overlying freshwater deposits at Q1/B. In 1996 further hominid remains were found; two incisor teeth from a single individual recovered from the lower freshwater deposits at the site. The tibia is so far the only post-cranial element of a Homo heidelbergensis to have been found in northern Europe. It is remarkably long (see right) and came from an adult individual who stood well over 1.8m tall. It is also extremely robust with an overall thickness comparable to that exhibited by the later Neanderthals. Overall the bone suggests that Boxgrove hominids were quite massively built, combining both height and muscular strength.
Swanscombe
Extensive stone tools, animal remains, and one set of human remains have been found at Swanscombe in Kent, east of London along the River Thames.
The area along the Thames appears to have been occupied between about 400,000 and 300,000 years ago, with stone tools and animals bones from various dates during that period.
A skull, split into 3 parts, was found here – the 3 different bits being found in the 1930s and 1950s. Although usually known as “Swanscombe Man”, it’s thought that the skull is actually that of an adult woman. Her species is not entirely clear, but may well be homo heidelbergensis or similar. The skull is about 300,000 years old
Flint tools dating back 400,000 years to the early Stone Age, were excavated from the site.
Alongside the flint tools, are the remains of the animals which they had been used to butcher. The lowest, and hence the earliest, deposits at Swanscombe contain evidence of a range of flint tools dominated by large flint flakes, some of them transformed by simple working to make them more easily held or to form a notched cutting edge
Sand and gravel deposits underneath Swanscombe were laid down between 425,000 and 350,000 BC by an ancient course of the Thames, flowing more than 30 m higher than in the present day.
They also contain bones of the animals of the time, such as lions, elephants (an extinct species the "straight-tusked elephant", more than twice as tall as a modern man and four times the weight of a family car), rhinoceroses, giant deer and many more.
The types of animals also reflect the climate and environment. The presence of rhinoceroses, elephants and deer indicate a warm climate, predominantly wooded, but with open tracts of grassland.
Other fauna such as molluscs, mice, bats, fish and reptiles are also preserved, and these combine to provide a detailed picture of a climate slightly warmer than the present day, and a lush, fertile landscape teeming with animal life.
High Lodge & Clacton
Similar remains to Swanscombe, are known from deposits of the same age at Clacton-on-Sea, so the makers, and their distinctive range of tools, have been named "Clactonian".
The early part of the Hoxnian interglacial (at some time between c 450-400,000BP), with the succeeding Acheulian culture lasting to the Ipswichian interglacial (c 125,000BP). However, at High Lodge in Suffolk, Acheulian assemblages have been found dating from before the Anglian glaciation.
High Lodge, NE of Mildenhall in Suffolk has archaeological deposits in the middle reaches of the Bytham River which have been eroded and deformed by the river and were essentially flood plain deposits. Hand axes have been excavated and are classed as Clactonian assemblages. Refitted material indicates that people also lived on the site.
Middle to late hominins - Homo neandethalensis
A long protracted ice age (Wolstonian) would have certainly curtailed any long term occupation of the BI. However around 320 kya and 220 kya, warm interglacial phases (MIS 9 & MIS 7) allowed human occupation at sites such as Purfleet.
The first interglacial phase is in fact, defined by the site of Purfleet, originally part of the London Thames terrace.
Ebbsfleet
The Ebbsfleet River valley is of great in prehistory, and much archaeological excavation has taken place here over the years. Quarrying here has revealed signs of extensive occupation some 100,000 years ago: flint knapping was carried out here, the remains of a straigt tusked elephant have also been found. Distinctive pottery from the neolithic age has been discovered; such pots give their name to an important sub-culture of the period –Ebbsfleet ware.
Purfleet
Middle Pleistocene fluvial deposits of the Corbets Tey Formation at Purfleet, Essex, provide evidence of an un-named and previously poorly recognized interglacial, thought to corrrelate with Oxygen Isotope Stage (OIS) 9. Previous attributions of the sediments to the Ipswichian (Last Interglacial) Stage are refuted. New investigations have yielded rich molluscan, mammalian and ostracod assemblages that indicate fully temperate conditions and the distal influence of marine transgression. Pollen analyses suggest a previously unrecorded phase of interglacial vegetational development. Clast composition, geomorphological evidence and the occurrence of molluscs that favour large rivers all point to deposition by the Thames, rather than in a minor tributary, as suggested previously. Three separate Palaeolithic industries in stratigraphical superposition are recognized at Purfleet, these being Clactonian, Acheulean and Levallois. Purfleet is therefore a key locality in the understanding of the early human occupation and exploitation of southern Britain, as well as for the interpretation and correlation of the terrace sequence in the Thames Valley.
Lynford
In late February and early March 2002, an archaeological watching brief at Lynford Quarry, Mundford, Norfolk revealed a palaeochannel with a dark organic fill containing in situ mammoth remains and associated Mousterian stone tools and debitage buried under 2–3 m of bedded sands and gravels. Well-preserved in situ Middle Palaeolithic open air sites are very unusal in Europe and exceedingly rare within a British context. As such, the site was identified as being of national and international importance, and was subsequently excavated by the Norfolk Archaeological Unit. Full analysis of the results are pending and this report presents some of the initial results of the excavation. It sets out how the site was excavated, outlines the stratigraphic sequence for the site, and presents some provisional findings of the excavation based on the results of the assessment work carried out to date.
Late hominins
Homo sapiens
Cresswell crags
Seasonal meeting caves for both Neanderthals and later Homo sapiens
Gorge is limestone carved out over 500,000 years. It runs for 500 meters and reaches a height of 50 meters. Rock shelters and caves have been carved out of the limestone. A total of 24 caves are listed, but only the larger caves excavated.
A] Mother Grundys Parlour = Armstrongs Base Zone were found Stone tools and a hearth (12,000 BP). 847 artefacts including bones with carvings, including an engraved antelope bone. Stratified sequences. 6.7 meters wide and 10.7 meters deep. Base Zone radio carbon dated at 12,192 BP to 12,060 BP. Bovid and Red deer remains too.
B] Robin Hood cave = Largest cave excavated, with four large different chambers connected by passageways. Stone lined hearth – bone with a horse head engraved. Stratified sequences. Lies 180 meters west of MGP. Extends 50 meters into the cliff.
C] Pinhole cave = stone tools, bone artefacts, bovid rib with a human figure engraved on it and bone pendant found near inner hearth. Stratified sequences. Cave lies at the west end of the gorge on its northern side, extending some 40 meters into the gorge. Human bones found near a hearth (not burned) representing four individuals.
D] Church Hole = A long thin cave Produced large number of bones and artefacts
E] Boat House = A large arched entrance. Produced large number of bones and artefacts
Why!
For generations bands of hunter gatherers (Neanderthals then Homo sapiens) returned to the crags during the course of their annual cycle. All caves have a series of radio carbon dates extending through the last glacial period (Devensian isotope 3) contemporary with other Palaeolithic sites Beedings and Kents Cavern. This was the most northernly location of both Neanderthals and early Homo sapiens (pioneer class). Creswell Crags was the location for one of the larger social gatherings, which were a feature of hunter gatherer life for Homo sapiens.
Deepcar
This site lies 12 km north west of Sheffield, overlooking the valley of the river Don. The stone tool assemblages’ number over 37,000 items. The large number of finds from Deepcar suggests it was used in either long time occupation, or numerous short consecutive stays. The concentration of microliths suggests that Deepcar may have been a hunting camp that acted as a base for forays into the surrounding uplands
Anston Stones Gorge
Anston Stones is a large cliff sided valley on the outskirts of North Anston village, South Yorkshire. High up on the south facing cliff is Dead Man's Cave.
Flint knives and blades that were found are similar to artefacts from Creswell Crags. Hunters may have been using this cave as a temporary camp just for one or two nights around 12,000 years ago as an alternative to other caves and rockshelters in the area.
Bones recovered from the deposits are of very mixed ages including very recent material. Bones of Ice Age animals include remains of wild horse and reindeer. Radiocarbon dates for the reindeer just after 10,000 years ago show that reindeer herds were still living in this area just after the last Ice Age.
Ash Tree Gorge
On the southern side of this gorge is Ash Tree Cave in which excavations have taken place.
These excavations recorded three main layers in which stone tools and bones of animals were found.
From the middle layer of deposits a number of flint, quartzite and clay-ironstone tools made by Neanderthal people were found. The upper most deposits were more mixed but did include tools from the Late Upper Palaeolithic. Middle Palaeolithic waste material from sharpening a handaxe from Ash Tree Cave. 60,000-40,000 years old, made of clay-ironstone.
Ash Tree Cave is only 2.6 km north-west of Creswell Crags and it is not impossible that the people using this cave were the same as those who left the clay-ironstone handaxes at the Crags. However, attempts to refit the flakes to the handaxes from Robin Hood Cave were not successful and so the link remains conjectural. The handaxes, and by definition these flakes, are thought to be Middle Palaeolithic and made by Neanderthals during the middle of the Last Cold Stage. These ironstone flakes were found in what was described by the excavation as a stony cave-earth.
The cave had been used as a burial site during the Bronze Age. A cremation was found near to the entrance and further inside human bone was placed beneath a pile of limestone slabs and within a stone cist.
The lowest layer produced an amazing range of fossil bones including arctic hare, northern vole, wolf, red fox, brown bear, wolverine, reindeer and bison who were living in the vicinity of the cave during the early stages of the Last Ice Age. The middle layer contained an even more diverse range of animal species such as arctic hare, lemming, wolf, arctic fox, red fox, brown bear, spotted hyaena, lion, mammoth, wild horse, woolly rhinoceros.
Steetley Quarry
Fossil bone found at this Quarry included remains of wolf, fox, bear, reindeer and bison. These bones provide a picture of animals living in the Worksop area during the early stages of the last Ice Age about 70,000 years ago.
Steetley Quarry Cave contained a large number of animal bones dating to after the Last Ice Age 10,000 years ago. Spectacular finds are the two jaws of lynx. A flint microlith indicates human activity at this time.
Kents cavern
Situated in Devon, this is Britain’s oldest used cave, with occupation dating to 450,000 years ago.
The caves in the cavern were created about two million years ago by water carving its passage through 385 million year old limestone.
Five hand axes made from flint have been excavated from breccia in the Long arcade and Clinnicks Gallery and all date back 450 kyrs, to Homo heidelbergensis.
Neanderthal flint tools (such as 80 kyr hand axe) have been excavated showing these humans also used the cave.
Homo sapien flint tools have also been found along with a mandible from the Vestibule chamber and initially dated to 31 kyr. These have been re-dated to between 41 – 44 kyrs.
More recent Mesolithic stone tools dating 7,000 years BC have also been recovered from Kents Cavern.
Among the animal bones found in at Kents cavern are Cave bears (Ursus deningen & Ursus spelaeus), dated from 420 kyr and 50-20 kyr. Cave Lion (Panthera leo) from 50-20 kyr. Sabre Tooth Cat (Homotherium ladidens) half a dozen canines dating to 400 kyr. Mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius) teeth and leg bones, likely to be the result of hyaena scavenging. Other animal remains found include Hyaena (crocuta crocuta), Wolf (Canis lupus) Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) and Woolly Rhino (Coelodonta antiquitatis).
Gough’s Cave
Gough’s cave is located in Cheddar Gorge on the Mendip Hills in Somerset.
The cave is 2135 kilometers long and 90 meters deep.
Homo sapiens, at Cheddar Gorge, lived in Gough’s cave some 14,700 years ago, towards the end of the Devensian Ice Age. This date comes from carbon dating of bones found in the cave, with a skull cap believed to have been fashioned into drinking vessel.
Cheddar man, was a skeleton of a hunter-gatherer who lived 9,000 years ago and is the oldest complete skeleton ever found in Britain. His death was probably due to a blow to the head. He was buried deep in the cave. The carving of a mammoth dating to 13,000 years. Has also been discovered at Gough’s cave.
Goat’s hole Cave
This cave is on the Gower Peninsula, at Paviland South Wales.
Bones of what was believed to be a female homo sapien (Red lady of Paviland), were discovered between 18 and 25 January 1923 by the Rev. William Buckland. Recently the bones have been dated to 33,000 years old, and are in fact those of a young man, no more then 21 years of age. His bones were dyed in red ochre, which gave him a reddish tint. Bone protein analysis indicates that the "lady" lived on a diet that consisted of between 15% and 20% fish, which, together with the distance from the sea, suggests that the people may have been semi- nomadic, or that the tribe transported the body from a coastal region for burial.
Final Conclusion on hominin remains in Britain
In this research project I have touched on a few popular sites in the British Isles that have yielded up evidence of hominin activity. From the earliest sites at Pakesfield and Happisburg (believed to be equal in age to Homo antecessor sites in Spain) to the much later Homo sapien sites at Cheddar Gorge and Paviland, Britain has been periodically occupied by humans.
The great ice sheets that cut the British Isles off from mainland Europe hindered humans and much of the time Britain was left alone, isolated from hominin activity, but during inter-glacial phases, when Britain became accessable to humans, due to land bridges, they certainly did migrate into this land.
Much research has been done over the past 200 years to calibrate the dates of human occupation of the British Isles, and the recent Ancient Human Occupation of Britain (AHOB) programme has enhanced this research by re-examining the fossils and sites, many of them covered in this paper, to bring the most sophisticated and up to date methodology.
All it remains for me to say is that after several hundred thousand years, the British Isles remains a place for human occupation and development.
My thanks to all the people who helped me in the production of this paper on Hominin Britain.
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